One way to measure ionization energies is ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (PES), a technique based on the photoelectric effect. (Section 6.2) In PES, monochromatic light is directed onto a sample, causing electrons to be emitted. The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is measured. The difference between the energy of the photons and the kinetic energy of the electrons corresponds to the energy needed to remove the electrons (that is, the ionization energy). Suppose that a PES experiment is performed in which mercury vapor is irradiated with ultraviolet light of wavelength 58.4 nm. (b) Write an equation that shows the process corresponding to the first ionization energy of Hg.

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Understand the concept of ionization energy: Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom or ion in its gaseous state.

Identify the process for the first ionization energy: The first ionization energy involves removing the outermost electron from a neutral atom.

Write the general equation for the ionization process: For a generic element X, the equation is X(g) → X⁺(g) + e⁻.

Apply the equation to mercury (Hg): Replace X with Hg to represent the ionization of mercury.

Write the specific equation for mercury: Hg(g) → Hg⁺(g) + e⁻, which shows the removal of one electron from a neutral mercury atom in the gaseous state.

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Textbook Question

Moseley established the concept of atomic number by studying X rays emitted by the elements. The X rays emitted by some of the elements have the following wavelengths: Element Wavelength (pm) Ne 1461 Ca 335.8 Zn 143.5 Zr 78.6 Sn 49.1 (b) Plot the square root of n versus the atomic number of the element. What do you observe about the plot? (e) A particular element emits X rays with a wavelength of 98.0 pm. What element do you think it is?

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Textbook Question

Moseley established the concept of atomic number by studying X rays emitted by the elements. The X rays emitted by some of the elements have the following wavelengths: Element Wavelength (pm) Ne 1461 Ca 335.8 Zn 143.5 Zr 78.6 Sn 49.1 (d) Use the result from part (b) to predict the X-ray wavelength emitted by iron.

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Textbook Question

Moseley established the concept of atomic number by studying X rays emitted by the elements. The X rays emitted by some of the elements have the following wavelengths: Element Wavelength (pm) Ne 1461 Ca 335.8 Zn 143.5 Zr 78.6 Sn 49.1 (e) A particular element emits X rays with a wavelength of 98.0 pm. What element do you think it is?

Textbook Question

One way to measure ionization energies is ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (PES), a technique based on the photoelectric effect. (Section 6.2) In PES, monochromatic light is directed onto a sample, causing electrons to be emitted. The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is measured. The difference between the energy of the photons and the kinetic energy of the electrons corresponds to the energy needed to remove the electrons (that is, the ionization energy). Suppose that a PES experiment is performed in which mercury vapor is irradiated with ultraviolet light of wavelength 58.4 nm. (c) The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is measured to be 1.72 × 10^-18 J. What is the first ionization energy of Hg, in kJ/mol?

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Textbook Question

One way to measure ionization energies is ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (PES), a technique based on the photoelectric effect. (Section 6.2) In PES, monochromatic light is directed onto a sample, causing electrons to be emitted. The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is measured. The difference between the energy of the photons and the kinetic energy of the electrons corresponds to the energy needed to remove the electrons (that is, the ionization energy). Suppose that a PES experiment is performed in which mercury vapor is irradiated with ultraviolet light of wavelength 58.4 nm. (d) Using Figure 7.10, determine which of the halogen elements has a first ionization energy closest to that of mercury.

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Textbook Question

Mercury in the environment can exist in oxidation states 0, +1, and +2. One major question in environmental chemistry research is how to best measure the oxidation state of mercury in natural systems; this is made more complicated by the fact that mercury can be reduced or oxidized on surfaces differently than it would be if it were free in solution. XPS, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, is a technique related to PES (see Exercise 7.111), but instead of using ultraviolet light to eject valence electrons, X rays are used to eject core electrons. The energies of the core electrons are different for different oxidation states of the element. In one set of experiments, researchers examined mercury contamination of minerals in water. They measured the XPS signals that corresponded to electrons ejected from mercury's 4f orbitals at 105 eV, from an X-ray source that provided 1253.6 eV of energy 11 ev = 1.602 * 10-19J2. The oxygen on the mineral surface gave emitted electron energies at 531 eV, corresponding to the 1s orbital of oxygen. Overall the researchers concluded that oxidation states were +2 for Hg and -2 for O. (b) Compare the energies of the 4f electrons in mercury and the 1s electrons in oxygen from these data to the first ionization energies of mercury and oxygen from the data in this chapter.

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