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True or False. A ketohexose has 4 asymmetric carbons and 16 stereoisomers, 

Propose a suitable mechanism for the cleavage of tagatose-1,6-bisphosphate 

Among the four given aldotetroses, which are C-2 epimers, and which are ena

Refer to the figure provided to determine the sugar that corresponds to the

Monosaccharide

An unknown sugar molecule has been found to have a molar mass of around 90 

Determine the number of possible stereoisomers for ketopentose.

Identifying Types of Stereoisomers

Naming a generic monosaccharide

Monosaccharides can be described by both generic names and specific names.

&#160;

Generic naming involves:&#160;

<ul>
	<li>Carbonyl type (i.e. aldo&#8212; )</li>
	<li>Carbon Chain Length (Pre-IUPAC) with &#8211;&#8220;ose&#8221; ending (i.e. &#8211;triose, -tetrose, &#8211;pentose, -hexose, etc)</li>
</ul>

Determining Stereoisomers and Epimers

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Pentoses and hexoses are highly prevalent in biological systems. You probably only need to know a few of these. Let&#39;s learn some tricks to make them easy to remember &#38; draw out.&#160;

Monosaccharides - Common Structures

As mentioned previously, monosaccharides have the ability to react at the &#8211;O position in several different ways. In monosaccharide acylation, base promoted conditions can lead to the formation of&#160;polyester derivatives.&#160;

Monosaccharides - Acylation

Nucleophilic addition of the penultimate alcohol to the electrophilic carbonyl carbon leads to cyclization. This is the usual case. In the videos below we will refresh your memory on these terms!

Monosaccharides - Cyclization

There is a stronger oxidation out there that exists besides bromine/water, which turns monosaccharides into aldaric acid, but oxidizing both the aldehyde at the top and the bottom alcohol forming a diacid.

Monosaccharides - Strong Oxidation (Aldaric Acid)

We know that monosaccharides have the ability to react at the &#8211;O position in several different ways.&#160;In acidic conditions, monosaccharides can alkylate at the anomeric position to produce o-glycosides.

Glycoside

In basic conditions, monosaccharides will undergo a multitude of tautomerizations and isomerizations. The most profound of these is the ability of aldoses and ketoses to reversibly rearrange.

Monosaccharides - Aldose-Ketose Rearrangement

In order to best visualize sugars we will be using Fischer projections, devised by Emil Fischer himself. The great thing about using these projections is that it will allow us to easily notice chirality centers.&nbsp;

Monosaccharides - Drawing Fischer Projections

We already learned that a reaction with Bromine water (weak oxidation) provides high yields of aldonic acid. However, this reaction has a limitation:It does not undergo a visible transformation.

Now, lets learn a couple other reactions that have visual cues and also begin talking about &#34;what is a&#160;reducing sugar&#34;&#160;.&#160;

Reducing Sugars

Haworth projections are simplified drawings of sugars in their cyclic form, imagining that the ringed structure is planar.&#160;

Monosaccharides - Haworth Projections

The Wohl Degradation is a chain-shortening reaction. In this type of reaction, the aldehydes are transformed into cyanohydrins first to be reversibly removed by base.&#160;

Monosaccharides - Wohl Degradation

Pyranose and furanose rings are constantly hydrolyzing back and forth between cyclic and straight-chain forms. Mutorotation is basically the backwards reaction of cyclization where we get a mixture of&#160;&#945; and &#946; forms at&#160;the anomeric position. Let&#39;s take a look at how it works.&#160;

Mutarotation

Sugars, saccharides, and carbohydrates are all different words for the same types of molecules. Now that we&#39;re all on the same page, let&#39;s begin our journey on these fascinating molecules.&#160;

By now you should know monosaccharides and we scratched the surface on disaccharides just a little while ago, but what about polysaccharides?&#160;

Polysaccharide

As polyols with carbonyls, monosaccharides can undergo a series of oxidation and reduction reactions. Reduction of a monosaccharides produces polyols known as alditols or sugar alcohols.

Monosaccharides - Reduction (Alditols)

Opposite to Kiliani-Fischer, aldose aldehydes can be oxidized to carboxylic acids and then decarboxylated to shorten chains. This will utilize a reaction we learned before, except now it is applied to sugars. Let&#39;s try and&#160;refresh your memory.&#160;

Monosaccharides - Ruff Degradation

We know that&#160;aldose aldehydes are susceptible to the same nucleophilic addition reactions that we learned in carbonyl chemistry. Let&#39;s now learn a reaction that involves the formation of a cyanohydrin. The neat thing about this reaction is that the cyano group can then be reduced and hydrolyzed to form a new, chain-lengthened aldehyde.

Monosaccharides - Kiliani-Fischer

Monosaccharides have the ability to react at the –O position in several different ways. The simplest of these is called exhaustive alkylation.

Monosaccharides - Alkylation

Monosaccharides have the ability to react at the &#8211;O position in several different ways. In acidic conditions, monosaccharides can substitute selectively at the anomeric position to produce glycosides.

Monosaccharides - N-Glycosides

By now you guys should be pro&#39;s at monosaccharides, but let&#39;s take it a step further and explore what a disaccharide is. In its simplest terms, a disaccharide is two monosaccharides bound by an O-glycosidic linkage (&#945; or &#946;). Below we will take a look at some important ones to remember.

Disaccharide

By definition, monosaccharides contain at least one carbonyl group and multiple alcohols. With that in mind, do you remember a reaction from the past that includes both of these groups? That&#39;s right, guys! It&#39;s the hemiacetal/acetal reaction. Let&#39;s see how this works with monosaccharides.

Monosaccharides - Forming Cyclic Hemiacetals

You may remember&#160;that periodic acid has the&#160;ability to cleave vicinal diols. Sugars contain mutliple diols that can potentially be cleaved, but other functional groups can be cleaved as well. Below we will explore each of them in detail.&#160;

Monosaccharides - Oxidative Cleavage

In basic conditions, monosaccharides will undergo a multitude of tautomerizations and isomerizations. The most straightforward of these is epimerization.

Epimerization

Aldose aldehydes are susceptible to the same nucleophilic addition reactions that we learned in carbonyl chemistry. In this video, we will specifically be looking at amines and what they can form when reacting with monosaccharides.&#160;

Monosaccharides - Osazones

We explored that as polyols with carbonyls, monosaccharides can undergo a series of oxidation and reduction reactions. One of those possible oxidations is called Weak Oxidation. Let&#39;s learn more about this process.&#160;

Monosaccharides - Weak Oxidation (Aldonic Acid)

All monosaccharides come in dextrorotary (D) and levorotary (L) forms. You may have heard these terms before when learning about optical activity.&#160;Another way to descrbise these D and L forms are enantiomers of each other.