Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with Readings, 11th edition

I. PRINCIPLES OF ARGUMENT

1. Argument: An Introduction
   • What Do We Mean by Argument?
     • Argument Is Not a Fight or a Quarrel
     • Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate
     • Arguments Can Be Explicit or Implicit
   • An Explicit Argument Opposing Legalization of Marijuana
   • For Writing and Discussion: Implicit and Explicit Arguments
   • The Defining Features of Argument
     • Argument Requires Justification of Its Claims
     • Argument Is Both a Process and a Product
     • Argument Combines Truth-Seeking and Persuasion
   • Argument and the Problem of Truth in the 21st Century
   • For Writing and Discussion: Role-Playing Arguments
     • Conclusion
2. The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reason
   • The Classical Structure of Argument
   • Classical Appeals and the Rhetorical Triangle
   • Issue Questions as the Origins of Argument
     • Difference between an Issue Question and an Information Question
     • How to Identify an Issue Question
   • For Writing and Discussion: Information Questions Versus Issue Questions
     • Difference between a Genuine Argument and a Pseudo-Argument
   • For Writing and Discussion: Reasonable Arguments Versus Pseudo-Arguments
   • Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons
     • What Is a Reason?
   • For Writing and Discussion: Using Images to Support an Argument
     • Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses
   • For Writing and Discussion: Developing Claims and Reasons
     • Conclusion
   • Writing Assignment: An Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements 0
3. The Logical Structure of Arguments: Logos
   • An Overview of Logos: What Do We Mean by the “Logical Structure” of an Argument?
     • Formal Logic Versus Real-World Logic
     • The Role of Assumptions
     • The Core of an Argument: The Enthymeme
     • The Power of Audience-Based Reasons
   • For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Underlying Assumptions and Choosing Audience-Based Reasons
   • Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments: The Toulmin System
   • For Writing and Discussion: Developing Enthymemes with the Toulmin Schema
   • Using Toulmin’s Schema to Plan and Test Your Argument
     • Hypothetical Example: Cheerleaders as Athletes
   • First Part of Chandale’s Argument
   • Continuation of Chandale’s Argument
     • Extended Student Example: Girls and Violent Video Games
   • Carmen Tieu (Student Essay), Why Violent Video Games Are Good for Girls
     • The Thesis-Governed “Self-Announcing” Structure of Classical Argument
   • For Writing and Discussion: Reasons, Warrants, and Conditions of Rebuttal
     • Conclusion
     • A Note on the Informal Fallacies
   • Writing Assignment: Plan of an Argument’s Details
4. Using Evidence Effectively
   • Kinds of Evidence
   • The Persuasive Use of Evidence
     • Apply the STAR Criteria to Evidence
     • Establish a Trustworthy Ethos
     • Be Mindful of a Source’s Distance from Original Data
   • Rhetorical Understanding of Evidence
     • Angle of Vision and the Selection and Framing of Evidence
   • For Writing and Discussion: Creating Contrasting Angles of Vision
   • Examining Visual Arguments: Angle of Vision
     • Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence
     • Strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence
   • For Writing and Discussion: Using Strategies to Frame Statistical Evidence
     • Creating a Plan for Gathering Evidence
     • Conclusion
   • Writing Assignment: A Supporting-Reasons Argument
5. Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos
   • Logos, Ethos, and Pathos as Persuasive Appeals: An Overview
   • How to Create an Effective Ethos: The Appeal to Credibility
   • How to Create Pathos: The Appeal to Beliefs and Emotions
     • Use Concrete Language
     • Use Specific Examples and Illustrations
     • Use Narratives
     • Use Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate Connotations
   • For Writing and Discussion: Incorporating Appeals to Pathos
   • Kairos: The Timeliness and Fitness of Arguments
   • For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing an Argument from the Perspectives of Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos
   • Using Images to Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos
   • For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing Images as Appeals to Pathos
   • Examining Visual Arguments: Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos
   • How Audience-Based Reasons Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos
   • For Writing and Discussion: Planning an Audience-Based Argumentative Strategy
     • Conclusion
   • Writing Assignment: Revising a Draft for Ethos, Pathos, and Audience-Based Reasons
6. Responding to Objections and Alternative Views
   • One-Sided, Multisided, and Delayed-Thesis Arguments
   • Determining Your Audience’s Resistance to Your Views
   • Appealing to a Supportive Audience: One-Sided Argument
   • Appealing to a Neutral or Undecided Audience: Classical Argument
     • Summarizing Opposing Views
   • For Writing and Discussion: Distinguishing Fair from Unfair Summaries
     • Refuting Opposing Views
     • Strategies for Rebutting Evidence
     • Conceding to Opposing Views
     • Example of a Student Essay Using Refutation Strategy
   • Trudie Makens (Student Essay), Bringing Dignity to Workers: Make the Minimum Wage a Living Wage
   • For Writing and Discussion: Refutation Strategies
   • Appealing to a Resistant Audience: Delayed-Thesis Argument
     • ALEXANDER CHANCELLOR, Oh, How I Will Miss the Plastic Bag
     • Writing a Delayed-Thesis Argument
     • Conclusion
   • Writing Assignment: A Classical Argument or a Delayed Thesis Argument
     • Reading
   • Lauren Shinozuka (Student Essay), The Dangers of Digital Distractedness

II. ENTERING AN ARGUMENTATIVE CONVERSATION

7. Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically
   • Thinking Rhetorically about a Text
   • Reconstructing a Text’s Rhetorical Context
     • Author, Motivating Occasion, and Purpose
     • Audience
     • Genre
     • Angle of Vision
   • Asking Questions That Promote Rhetorical Thinking
   • For Writing and Discussion: Practicing Rhetorical Analysis
   • Conducting a Rhetorical Analysis of a Source Text
     • KATHRYN JEAN LOPEZ, Egg Heads
   • For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Rhetorical Features
     • Our Own Rhetorical Analysis of “Egg Heads”
     • Conclusion
   • Writing Assignment: A Rhetorical Analysis
     • Readings
     • ELLEN GOODMAN, Womb for Rent
     • Critiquing “Womb for Rent”
   • Zachary Stumps (Student Essay), A Rhetorical Analysis Of Ellen Goodman’s “Womb For Rent”
8. Argument as Inquiry: Reading, Summarizing, and Speaking Back
   • Finding Issues to Explore
     • Do Some Initial Brainstorming
     • Be Open to the Issues All Around You
     • Explore Ideas by Freewriting
   • For Writing and Discussion: Responding to Visual Arguments About a Living Wage
     • Explore Ideas by Idea Mapping
     • Explore Ideas by Playing the Believing and Doubting Game
   • For Writing and Discussion: Playing the Believing and Doubting Game
   • Summarizing a Stakeholder’s Argument
     • JAMES SUROWIECKI, The Pay Is Too Damn Low
     • Thinking Steps for Writing a Summary
   • For Writing and Discussion: Does/Says Statements
   • Examples of Summaries
   • Responding to a Stakeholder’s Argument
     • Practicing Believing: Willing Your Own Acceptance of the Writer’s Views
     • Practicing Doubting: Willing Your Own Resistance to the Writer’s Views
   • For Writing and Discussion: Raising Doubts About Surowiecki’s Argument
   • Thinking Dialectically
   • For Writing and Discussion: Practicing Dialectic Thinking with Two Articles
     • MICHAEL SALTSMAN, To Help the Poor, Move Beyond “Minimum” Gestures
     • Three Ways to Foster Dialectic Thinking
     • Conclusion
   • Writing Assignment: An Argument Summary or a Formal Exploratory Essay
     • Reading
   • Trudie Makens (Student Essay), Should Fast-Food Workers Be Paid $15 per Hour?

III. EXPANDING OUR UNDERSTANDING OF ARGUMENT

9. Making Visual and Multimodal Arguments
   • Understanding Visual Design Elements in Multimodal Argument
     • Use of Type
     • Use of Space and Layout
     • Use of Color
     • Use of Images and Graphics
   • For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing an Advocacy Ad
   • The Compositional Features of Photographs and Drawings
     • Compositional Features to Examine in Photos and Drawings
     • An Analysis of a Multimedia Video Argument Using Words, Images, and Music
   • For Writing and Discussion: Thinking Rhetorically about Photos
   • The Genres of Multimodal Argument
     • Posters and Fliers
     • Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements
   • Cartoons
   • For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing Posters Rhetorically
   • For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing Cartoons
     • Websites
     • Advocacy Videos
   • Constructing Your Own Multimodal Arguments
     • Guidelines for Creating the Visual Elements in Posters, Fliers, and Advocacy Ads
     • Guidelines for Creating Video Arguments
   • For Writing and Discussion: Developing Ideas for an Advocacy Ad or Poster Argument
   • Using Information Graphics in Arguments
     • How Tables Contain a Variety of Stories
     • Using a Graph to Tell a Story
     • Incorporating Graphics into Your Argument
     • A Note on How Graphics Frame Data Rhetorically
     • Conclusion
   • Writing Assignment: A Visual Argument Rhetorical Analysis, a Visual Argument, or a Short Argument Using Quantitative Data
10. An Alternative to Argument: Collaborative Rhetoric
    • The Appropriateness and Usefulness of Collaborative Rhetoric
    • The Principles of Collaborative Rhetoric
      • Practicing Nonjudgmental Listening
      • Identifying Values, Emotions, and Identities
      • Seeking Common Ground
      • Promoting Openness to Ongoing Communication and Change
    • For Writing and Discussion: Listening Empathically and Seeking Common Ground
    • Preparing for Collaborative Rhetoric Through Reflective Writing and Discussion
      • Preparing for Collaborative Rhetoric Through Reflective Writing
      • Practicing Collaborative Rhetoric in Discussion
    • For Writing and Discussion: Conducting a Collaborative Rhetoric Discussion
    • Writing an Open Letter as Collaborative Rhetoric
    • Colleen Fontana (Student Essay), An Open Letter to Robert Levy in Response to His Article “They Never Learn”
      • Conclusion
    • Writing Assignment: An Open Letter as Collaborative Rhetoric
      • Reading
    • Monica Allen (Student Essay), An Open Letter to Christopher Eide in Response to His Article “High-Performing Charter Schools Can Close the Opportunity Gap”

IV. ARGUMENTS IN DEPTH: TYPES OF CLAIMS

11. An Introduction to the Types of Claims
    • The Types of Claims and Their Typical Patterns of Development
    • For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Types of Claims
    • Using Claim Types to Focus an Argument and Generate Ideas: An Example
      • Writer 1: Ban E-Cigarettes
      • Writer 2: Promote E-Cigarettes as a Preferred Alternative to Real Cigarettes
      • Writer 3: Place No Restrictions on E-Cigarettes
    • Hybrid Arguments: How Claim Types Work Together in Arguments
      • Some Examples of Hybrid Arguments
    • For Writing and Discussion: Exploring Different Claim Types and Audiences
      • An Extended Example of a Hybrid Argument
      • ALEX HUTCHINSON, Your Daily Multivitamin May Be Hurting You
12. Definition and Resemblance Arguments
    • What Is at Stake in an Argument about Definition and Resemblance?
      • Consequences Resulting from Categorical Claims
      • The Rule of Justice: Things in the Same Category Should Be Treated the Same Way
    • For Writing and Discussion: Applying the Rule of Justice
    • Types of Categorical Arguments
      • Simple Categorical Arguments
    • For Writing and Discussion: Supporting and Rebutting Simple Categorical Claims
      • Definition Arguments
      • Resemblance Argument Using Analogy
    • For Writing and Discussion: Developing Analogies
      • Resemblance Arguments Using Precedent
    • For Writing and Discussion: Using Claims of Precedent
    • Examining Visual Arguments: Claim about Category (Definition)
    • The Criteria-Match Structure of Definition Arguments
      • Overview of Criteria-Match Structure
      • Toulmin Framework for a Definition Argument
    • For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Criteria and Match Issues
      • Creating Criteria Using Aristotelian Definition
      • Strategy 1: Research How Others Have Defined the Term
      • Strategy 2: Create Your Own Extended Definition
    • For Writing and Discussion: Developing a Definition
    • Writing Assignment: A Definition Argument
    • Exploring Ideas
    • Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake
      • Organizing a Definition Argument
      • Questioning and Critiquing a Definition Argument
    • Readings
      • Arthur Knopf (Student Essay), Is Milk a Health Food?
      • Alex Mullen (Student Essay), A Pirate But Not a Thief: What Does “Stealing” Mean in a Digital Environment?
      • MARK OPPENHEIMER, How Do We Define Adulthood?
13. Causal Arguments
    • An Overview of Causal Arguments
      • Kinds of Causal Arguments
    • Toulmin Framework for a Causal Argument
    • For Writing and Discussion: Developing Causal Chains
    • Two Methods for Arguing That One Event Causes Another
      • First Method: Explain the Causal Mechanism Directly
      • Second Method: Infer Causal Links Using Inductive Reasoning
    • For Writing and Discussion: Developing Plausible Causal Chains Based on Correlations
    • Examining Visual Arguments: A Causal Claim
    • Key Terms and Inductive Fallacies in Causal Arguments
      • A Glossary of Key Terms
      • Avoiding Common Inductive Fallacies That Can Lead to Wrong Conclusions
    • For Writing and Discussion: Brainstorming Causes and Constraints
    • Writing Assignment: A Causal Argument
      • Exploring Ideas
      • Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake
      • Organizing a Causal Argument
      • Questioning and Critiquing a Causal Argument
    • Readings
      • Jesse Goncalves (Student Essay), What Causes Math Anxiety?
      • KRIS SAKNUSSEMM, Mirror, Mirror on the Wall, Are We Really Here at All? Can We Tell?
      • Carlos Macias (Student Essay), “The Credit Card Company Made Me Do It!”–The Credit Card Industry’s Role in Causing Student Debt
14. Evaluation and Ethical Arguments
    • An Overview of Categorical and Ethical Evaluation Arguments
    • Constructing a Categorical Evaluation Argument
      • Criteria-Match Structure of Categorical Evaluations
      • Developing Your Criteria
      • Making Your Match Argument
    • Examining Visual Arguments: An Evaluation Claim
    • For Writing and Discussion: Developing Criteria and Match Arguments
    • Constructing an Ethical Evaluation Argument
      • Consequences as the Base of Ethics
      • Principles as the Base of Ethics
      • Example Ethical Arguments Examining Capital Punishment
    • For Writing and Discussion: Developing an Ethical Argument
    • Common Problems in Making Evaluation Arguments
    • Writing Assignment: An Evaluation or Ethical Argument
      • Exploring Ideas
      • Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake
      • Organizing an Evaluation Argument
      • Questioning and Critiquing a Categorical Evaluation Argument
      • Critiquing an Ethical Argument
    • Readings
      • Lorena Mendoza-Flores (Student Essay), Silenced and Invisible: Problems of Hispanic Students at Valley High School
      • Hadley Reeder (Student Essay), A Defective and Detrimental Dress Code
      • JUDITH DAAR AND EREZ ALONI, Three Genetic Parents–For One Healthy Baby
      • SAMUEL AQUILA, The “Therapeutic Cloning” of Human Embryos
15. Proposal Arguments
    • The Special Features and Concerns of Proposal Arguments
      • Practical Proposals Versus Policy Proposals
      • Toulmin Framework for a Proposal Argument
      • Special Concerns for Proposal Arguments
    • Developing a Proposal Argument
    • Examining Visual Arguments: A Proposal Claim
      • Convincing Your Readers That a Problem Exists
      • Explaining the Proposed Solution: Showing the Specifics of Your Proposal
      • Offering a Justification: Convincing Your Readers That the Benefits of Your Proposal Outweigh the Costs
    • Using Heuristic Strategies to Develop Supporting Reasons for Your Proposal
      • The Claim Types Strategy
      • The Stock Issues Strategy
    • For Writing and Discussion: Generating Ideas Using the Claim Types Strategy
    • For Writing and Discussion: Brainstorming Ideas for a Proposal
    • Proposal Arguments as Advocacy Posters or Advertisements
    • Writing Assignment: A Proposal Argument
      • Exploring Ideas
      • Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake
      • Organizing a Proposal Argument
      • Designing a One-Page Advocacy Poster or Advertisement
      • Designing PowerPoint Slides or Other Visual Aids for a Speech
      • Questioning and Critiquing a Proposal Argument
    • Readings
      • Megan Johnson (Student Essay), A Practical Proposal
      • Ivan Snook (Student Essay), Flirting with Disaster: An Argument against Integrating Women into the Combat Arms
      • Sandy Wainscott (Student Essay), Why McDonald’s Should Sell Meat and Veggie Pies: A Proposal to End Subsidies for Cheap Meat
      • MARCEL DICKE AND ARNOLD VAN HUIS, The Six-Legged Meat of the Future

V. THE RESEARCHED ARGUMENT

16. Finding and Evaluating Sources
    • Formulating a Research Question Instead of a Topic
    • Thinking Rhetorically About Kinds of Sources
      • Identifying Kinds of Sources Relevant to Your Question
      • Approaching Sources Rhetorically
    • For Writing and Discussion: Identifying Types of Sources
    • Finding Sources
      • Conducting Interviews
      • Gathering Source Data from Surveys or Questionnaires
      • Finding Books and Reference Sources
      • Using Licensed Databases to Find Articles in Scholarly Journals, Magazines, and News Sources
      • Finding Cyberspace Sources: Searching the World Wide Web
    • Selecting and Evaluating Your Sources and Taking Purposeful Notes
      • Reading with Rhetorical Awareness
      • Evaluating Sources
      • Criteria for Evaluating a Web Source
    • For Writing and Discussion: Analyzing the Rhetorical Elements of Two Websites
      • Taking Purposeful Notes
      • Conclusion
17. Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument
    • Using Sources for Your Own Purposes
      • Writer 1: A Causal Argument Showing Alternative Approaches to Reducing Risk of Alcoholism
      • Writer 2: A Proposal Argument Advocating Vegetarianism
      • Writer 3: An Evaluation Argument Looking Skeptically at Vegetarianism
    • For Writing And Discussion: Using a Source for Different Purposes
    • Using Summary, Paraphrase, and Quotation
      • Summarizing
      • Paraphrasing
      • Quoting
    • Punctuating Quotations Correctly
      • Quoting a Complete Sentence
      • Quoting Words and Phrases
      • Modifying a Quotation
      • Omitting Something from a Quoted Passage
      • Quoting Something That Contains a Quotation
      • Using a Block Quotation for a Long Passage
    • Creating Rhetorically Effective Attributive Tags
      • Attributive Tags versus Parenthetical Citations
      • Creating Attributive Tags to Shape Reader Response
    • Avoiding Plagiarism
      • Why Some Kinds of Plagiarism May Occur Unwittingly
      • Strategies for Avoiding Plagiarism
    • For Writing And Discussion: Avoiding Plagiarism
      • Conclusion
18. Citing and Documenting Sources
    • The Correspondence between In-Text Citations and the End-of-Paper List of Cited Works
    • MLA Style
      • In-Text Citations in MLA Style
      • Works Cited List in MLA Style
      • MLA Works Cited Citation Models
      • MLA-Style Research Paper
    • APA Style
      • In-Text Citations in APA Style
      • References List in APA Style
      • APA References Citation Models
      • APA-Style Research Paper
      • Conclusion

APPENDIX: INFORMAL FALLACIES

• The Difference Between Formal and Informal Logic