Published by Pearson (January 22, 2016) © 2017
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Brief Table of Contents
1 English Learners in 21st-Century Classrooms
2 Language and Language Acquisition
3 Classroom Practices for Effective English Learner Instruction
4 The New Literacies and English Learners
5 Oral English Development in Second Language Acquisition
6 First Steps to Literacy: English Learners Beginning to Write and Read
7 Words and Meanings: English Learners' Vocabulary Development
8 English Learners and Process Writing
9 Reading and Literature Instruction for English Learners
10 Content Reading and Writing: Prereading and During Reading
11 Content Reading and Writing: Postreading Strategies for Organizing and Remembering
Detailed Table of Contents
Preface xviii
1 English Learners in 21st-Century Classrooms 2
Who Are English Learners and How Can I Get to Know Them? 5
Learning about Your Students' Languages and Cultures 7
Getting Basic Information When a New Student Arrives 7
Classroom Activities That Help You Get to Know Your Students 9
How Do Cultural Differences Affect Teaching and Learning? 11
Definitions of Culture 12
Who Am I in the Lives of My Students? 12
Becoming an Effective Participant—Observer in Your Own Classroom 13
Sociocultural Factors Affecting Language Use in the Classroom 16
Culturally Related Responses to Classroom Organization 18
Literacy Traditions from Home and Community 19
How Can I Ease New Students into the Routines of My Classroom? 20
First Things First: Safety and Security 21
Creating a Sense of Belonging 21
How Do Current Policy Trends Affect English Learner Education? 22
Academic Standards and Assessment 23
Common Core State Standards (CCSS) 23
English Language Development Standards and Assessment 25
Curriculum Standards, High-Stakes Testing, and “No Child Left Behind” 26
Socioeconomic Status: Predictor of Standardized Test Scores 27
Education Policy Specific to English Learners 28
Newer Technologies: Purposes, Policies, and Assessments 31
What Kinds of Programs Exist to Meet the Needs of English Learners? 32
English Learner Program Models 33
Research on Bilingual and ESL Programs Serving English Learners 35
Summary 37
Internet Resources 38
Activities 39
2 Language and Language Acquisition 40
How Have Language Proficiency and Communicative Competence Been Defined? 42
Language Use in Social Context: A Classroom Conversation 43
Bilingual Communicative Competence 46
Figurative Language 47
What Is Academic Language? 48
Contrasting Social and Academic Language 49
Academic Language Qualities 49
Academic Language Functions 50
Academic Language Linguistic Features 51
The Role of Background Knowledge in Academic Language Use 53
How Does Language Relate to Power, Social Standing, and Identity? 54
Language as an Instrument and Symbol of Power 55
Language or Dialect? 55
How a Dialect Becomes the “Standard” Language 56
How Language Variety Affects the Power and Prestige of Its Users 57
The Role of a Standard Language 58
Misuse of the Term Dialect 59
What Theories Have Been Proposed to Explain Language Acquisition? 60
First Language Acquisition Theories 60
Behaviorist Theory 60
Innatist Theory 61
Interactionist Theory 62
Summary of First Language Acquisition Theories 63
Second Language Acquisition Theories 64
Behaviorist Perspective 65
Innatist Perspective 65
Krashen's Five Hypotheses 66
Interactionist Perspective 68
Summary of Second Language Acquisition Theories 69
What Are Some Traits and Sequences in English Language Acquisition? 70
Interlanguage and Fossilization 70
Developmental Sequences in English Language Acquisition 71
What Factors Influence Second Language Development in School? 73
Social Context of the Language Learning Environment 73
Primary Language Development 75
Age and the Interplay of Sociocultural and Psychological Factors 77
Sociocultural Factors 77
Personality Factors 78
Cognitive Factors 78
Teacher Expectations and Learner Errors 79
Summary 81
Internet Resources 82
Activities 82
3 Classroom Practices for Effective English Learner Instruction 84
How Do Curriculum Standards Serve English Learners? 88
How Is Instruction Differentiated to Meet the Varied Needs of English Learners? 90
How Is Sheltered Instruction (SDAIE) Planned and Implemented? 92
A Science Example with Fourth-Graders 93
A Literature Example with Kindergartners 95
A Social Science Example with High School Students 96
Planning for Differentiated, Sheltered English Instruction/SDAIE 99
Response to Intervention (RTI) 102
How Does Group Work Facilitate Content and Language Learning? 104
Collaborative Groups 104
Cooperative Learning Methods 106
Phases of Cooperative Group Development 107
Jigsaw 108
How Does Thematic Instruction Promote Content and Language Learning? 109
Organizing Thematic Instruction 110
Meaning and Purpose 110
Building on Prior Knowledge 110
Integrated Opportunities to Use Oral and Written Language for Learning Purposes 111
Scaffolding for Support 111
Collaboration 111
Variety 111
Functional and Academic Literacy Uses in Thematic Instruction 113
Creating Variety in Language and Literacy Uses 114
Scaffolding 116
Routines as Scaffolds 116
Literacy Scaffolds for English Learners 117
How Are English Learners Assessed? 119
Definition and Purposes of English Learner Assessment 119
Basic Concepts and Terms Used in Assessment 119
Identification and Placement of Students Needing Language Education Support Services 121
Re-Designation to Fully English Proficient 122
Limitations of Standardized Language Proficiency Tests 122
Program Evaluation 123
Principles of Classroom-Based Assessment 124
Keeping Cultural Considerations in Mind 125
Planning Systematic, Classroom-Based Assessment 125
Summary 126
Internet Resources 127
Activities 128
4 The New Literacies and English Learners 130
What Are the New Literacies for 21st-Century Technologies? 134
How Can We Help Students Use the Internet Effectively and Safely? 137
Comparing Online Reading and Traditional Reading 137
The Importance of Safe, Responsible, and Ethical Internet Use 139
Helping Students Evaluate Websites: Bias, Reliability, and Accuracy 139
How Can Teachers Use Technology to Differentiate Instruction for English Learners? 140
How May Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 Be Used for Academic Learning? 143
Using Web 1.0 for Classroom Learning 143
Scavenger Hunts 144
WebQuests 144
Individual and Group Research Projects 144
Using Web 2.0 for Classroom Learning 145
Blogs 146
Classroom Uses of Blogs 146
Wikis 148
Classroom Uses of Wikis 149
Podcasts and Videos 151
Classroom Uses of Podcasts and Videos 151
Social Networking 153
Classroom Sites Where You Can Restrict Access 153
Why and How You Might Use Social Networking in the Classroom 154
Teacher Networking Sites 155
What Are Some Additional Tools and Resources for Teachers? 155
RSS: Keeping Track of New Information on Your Favorite Sites 155
A Glimpse of the Future 156
Summary 157
Internet Resources 157
Activities 158
5 Oral English Development in Second Language Acquisition 160
Why Is an Integrated Approach to English Language Arts Important? 162
Functional Integration of Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing 162
Developmental Relationships among Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing 163
Oral Language in Perspective 165
Form, Function, and Social Context in Oral Language Use 166
What Traits Describe the Oral Proficiency of Beginning and Intermediate English Learners? 168
Second Language Oral Proficiency of Beginning English Learners 168
Second Language Oral Proficiency of Intermediate English Learners 170
What Are Some Strategies That Promote Oral Language Development? 172
Using Games for English Language Development 173
Podcasts to Enhance English Learning in Your Classroom 174
Songs 174
Drama 174
Dramatizing Poetry 175
Show and Tell 175
One Looks, One Doesn't 176
Recording Students' Re-Creations of Wordless Book Stories 177
Recording and Dubbing a Television Show 178
Choral Reading 178
Riddles and Jokes 179
What Are Some Academic Language Features of Oral Instruction in Math, Science, and Social Studies? 179
Academic Language Features of Mathematics 180
Academic Language Features of Science 181
Academic Language Features of Social Studies 182
Facilitating Oral Language Development during Academic Instruction 183
Teacher Talk during Academic Instruction 183
Scaffolding Student Use of Oral Language for Academic Purposes 183
How May We Assess English Learners' Oral Language Competence? 185
The Student Oral Language Observation Matrix 185
Example of a SOLOM Observation and Scoring 187
Instructional Implications Based on Solom Scoring 190
Checklists and Anecdotal Observations 190
How May Content Instruction Be Differentiated to Promote Oral Language Development? 193
Summary 196
Internet Resources 196
Activities 197
6 First Steps to Literacy: English Learners Beginning to Write and Read 198
What Does Research Tell Us about Early Literacy Development? 202
Historical Overview of Early Literacy Instruction 204
Reading Readiness Perspective 204
Emergent Literacy Perspective 205
Balanced Comprehensive Literacy Perspective 206
Early Literacy Development in English as a Non-Native Language 207
Whole-Part-Whole Cycle for English Learners of All Ages 207
Special Needs of Older, Preliterate Learners 208
New Literacies and English Language Learners 210
Which Print Functions and Forms Are Acquired during Early Literacy Development? 210
Highlighting Literacy Functions in Your Classroom 211
Print Concepts Children Develop in the Emergent Literacy Phase 211
Exploring the Visual Form of Written Language 214
Alphabetic Writing Systems: Connecting Sounds and Symbols 215
Invented Spelling: Working Out Sound/Symbol Correspondences 217
How May Family and Community Nurture Early Literacy Development? 219
Family Practices That Promote Literacy Development 220
Family Literacy Programs 222
Promoting Parent Involvement in English Learners' Schooling 224
Making Parent Involvement a School-Wide Goal 224
Taking School Activities Home 224
Which Classroom Strategies Promote Early Literacy Development? 225
Early Literacy Goals 225
Creating a Literacy-Rich Classroom Environment 226
Books, Books, Books! 226
Using Daily Routines to Highlight the Forms and Functions of Print 229
Morning Message 229
Classroom Rules and Procedures 229
Wall Dictionary 229
Reading Aloud to Students 230
Shared Writing and Reading Using the Language Experience Approach 232
Dialogue Journals 233
Helping Students Recognize and Spell Words Independently 233
Using Big Books to Teach Sight Words and Phonics 233
Strategies to Increase Students' Sight Word Vocabulary 234
Phonics 235
Word Families 236
Invented Spelling and Word Recognition 238
Developmental Levels in Student Spelling 238
Summary of Early Literacy Instructional Strategies 242
How May English Learners' Early Literacy Development Be Assessed? 243
How May Early Literacy Instruction Be Differentiated for English Learners? 244
Summary 247
Internet Resources 247
Activities 248
7 Words and Meanings: English Learners' Vocabulary Development 250
What Does Research Show about English Learners' Vocabulary Development? 252
What Kinds of Words Do Students Need to Know? 256
How Do Students Learn New Words? 258
How Do We Differentiate Vocabulary Assessment and Instruction? 263
English Language Proficiency Considerations 263
Primary Language Proficiency Considerations 264
Vocabulary Assessment Prior to Instruction 265
Planning Differentiated Vocabulary Instruction 266
Fifth-Grade Science Lesson: Differentiated Instruction 266
Dictionaries as a Resource for Differentiating Instruction 267
Picture Dictionaries 268
Bilingual Dictionaries 269
Monolingual Language Learner Dictionaries 269
What Are Some Beginning and Intermediate English Learner Characteristics and Teaching Strategies? 269
Beginning English Learner Characteristics and Teaching Strategies 270
Total Physical Response (TPR) 270
Web Tools for Learning Vocabulary 271
Read-Alouds 272
Word Cards 272
Word Wall Dictionary 272
Working with Idioms 273
Intermediate English Learner Characteristics and
Teaching Strategies 274
Word Wheels 274
Language Wheels for Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, and Cognates 274
Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy 275
Word Wizard 275
Contextual Redefinition 276
List—Group—Label—Map for Elementary and Secondary Students 277
List 277
Group 277
Label 277
Vocabulary Journals 278
Teaching Students How to Use Dictionaries Effectively 278
Teaching Prefixes and Suffixes 279
Word Learning Strategies Older Students Found Useful 281
How Do We Assess ELs' Vocabulary Progress? 282
Summary 282
Internet Resources 283
Activities 284
8 English Learners and Process Writing 286
What Does Research Tell Us about Writing in a Second Language? 289
What Is Process Writing and How Does It Benefit English Learners? 290
Students' Responses to “I Remember” 293
How Does Process Writing Benefit English Learners? 295
What Are the Six Traits of Good Writing and How Can They Help English Learners? 295
Using Webtools with Process Writing: Blogs and Wikis 299
What Are Some Collaborative Contexts for Process Writing? 299
Peer Response Groups 300
A Sixth-Grade Class Works in Response Groups 303
Peer Editing Groups 304
Publishing Student Writing 305
What Are Some Beginning and Intermediate English Learner Characteristics and Teaching Strategies? 306
Description of Beginning Writers 307
Strategies to Assist Beginning Writers 308
Oral Discussion and Brainstorming Ideas 309
Partner Stories Using Pictures and Wordless Books 309
Concept Books: Creating a Teaching Library 310
Peek-a-Boo Books for Younger Students and Riddle Books for Older Students 310
Pattern Poems for Elementary and Secondary School Students 311
From Personal Journals to Dialogue Journals to Buddy Journals 311
Improvisational Sign Language 314
Life Murals 315
Clustering 315
Freewriting 316
Description of Intermediate Writers 317
Strategies for Intermediate Writers 319
Show and Not Tell 319
Sentence Combining 320
Sentence Shortening 321
Sentence Models 322
Student Examples of the Model 323
Voice 323
Mapping 324
How Can We Assess English Learners' Writing Progress and Differentiate Instruction? 327
Portfolio Assessment 328
Balancing Goals: Fluency, Form, and Correctness 330
Balancing Instruction: Scaffolds, Models, and Direct Instruction 331
Helping Students Deal with Errors in Their Writing 331
Example of a Differentiated Lesson Plan for English Learners 333
Summary 335
Internet Resources 336
Activities 336
9 Reading and Literature Instruction for English Learners 338
What Does Research Tell Us about Reading in a Second Language? 341
Second Language Readers 342
What Role Does Background Knowledge Play in English Learners'
Reading Comprehension? 342
Reading Processes of Proficient Readers 343
What Is Metacognition? “Thinking about Thinking” 344
What Role Does Text Structure Play in Reading Comprehension? 344
Why Is Internet Reading Thought of as a New Literacy? 345
How Do Guided Reading, Literature Study, and Independent Reading
Promote Literacy? 346
Guided Reading 347
Literature Study: Response Groups 348
Steps That Prepare Students to Work in Response Groups 350
How Literature Response Benefits English Learners 351
How Can We Encourage Independent Reading? 351
Approaches to Independent Reading 351
Helping Students Choose Books of Appropriate Difficulty 354
What Are the Characteristics and Strategies for Beginning and Intermediate Second Language Readers? 356
Beginning Second Language Readers: Characteristics and Strategies 356
Language-Experience Approach 356
Providing Quality Literature for Beginners 359
Pattern Books 360
Illustrating Stories and Poems 362
Shared Reading with Big Books 362
Directed Listening-Thinking Activity 363
Readers' Theater 365
Story Mapping 366
Intermediate Second Language Readers: Characteristics and Strategies 367
Cognitive Mapping 368
Directed Reading-Thinking Activity 369
Literature Response Journals 372
Developing Scripts for Readers' Theater 374
Adapting Stories into Plays and Skits for Live or Video presentations 374
How Do We Assess Second Language Readers' Progress? 375
Assessing with Materials Students Bring to Class 376
Informal Assessment 377
Miscue Analysis 377
Miscue Procedure 377
Interpreting Miscues 379
Informal Reading Inventories 384
Determining Independent, Instructional, and Frustration Reading Levels 384
Independent Reading Level 384
Instructional Reading Level 385
Frustration Reading Level 385
Running Records 385
Procedures for Running Records 386
Strengths of Running Records 386
Other Reading Assessment Resources 387
Portfolio Assessment 387
Student Self-Assessment 389
How Do We Differentiate Reading and Literature Instruction? 389
Summary 392
Internet Resources 393
Activities 394
10 Content Reading and Writing: Prereading and During Reading 396
What Does Research Tell Us about Content Area Reading and Writing for English Learners? 401
Looking Closely at the Reading Process of Mature Readers 402
Resources That English Learners Bring to Reading in English 405
How Do Readers Interact with Longer, More Complex Texts? 408
Aesthetic and Efferent Interactions with Texts 408
Effects of Text Structure on Comprehension and Memory 409
Cohesive Ties/Signal Words 412
Headings and Subheadings 413
Teaching Text Structure: A Classroom Example 413
Literary Structure 414
Discussion of Story Elements 415
Metacognition and Learning from Text 415
How Can We Match Students with Texts for Optimal Learning? 416
Evaluating Students' Interaction with Text Using the Group Reading Inventory 416
Evaluating Your Own Interaction with One Text 418
Which Strategies Promote Reading Comprehension? 420
Prereading Strategies: Developing Motivation, Purpose, and Background Knowledge 421
Teacher Talk: Making Purposes Clear 421
Field Trips and Films 422
Simulation Games 422
Using Newer Technologies to Enhance Comprehension 423
Experiments 423
Developing Vocabulary before Students Read a Text 423
Structured Overviews 424
Preview Guides 424
Anticipation Guides 425
During Reading Strategies: Monitoring Comprehension 427
Using Headings and Subheadings 427
Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DR-TA) 428
Guided Reading 429
ReQuest Procedure 430
Vocabulary Strategies during Reading 431
Using Clustering to Develop Vocabulary in Context 431
Jigsaw Procedure 433
Learning Logs 433
How Can We Assess Students and Differentiate Instruction for Content Reading? 434
Summary 436
Internet Resources 436
Activities 437
11 Content Reading and Writing: Postreading Strategies for Organizing and Remembering 438
Which Postreading Strategies Are Effective with English Learners and Why? 441
Semantic Feature Analysis for Vocabulary Development after Reading 441
Strategies to Organize and Remember Information 442
Rehearsing 443
Venn Diagrams 443
Mapping 444
Reciprocal Teaching 445
Summarizing and Rehearsing Information with Mapping 446
How Can Writing Be Used as a Learning Tool across the Curriculum? 447
Journals and Learning Logs 447
Developing Teacher- and Student-Generated Topics in Content Areas 447
Photo Essays: Combining Direct Experience, the Visual Mode, and Writing 450
Written and Oral Collaborative Research Projects 452
K-W-L, a Strategy That Fosters Thinking before, during, and after Reading 454
How Do Theme Studies Provide a Meaningful Learning Context for English Learners? 455
Introducing the Topic and Choosing Study Questions 455
Organizing Instruction 458
Instructional Modifications for English Learners 460
How Can Content Learning Be Assessed? 462
Portfolio Assessment 462
Selecting Materials for the Portfolio 462
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