Hi. In this video, we're going to be talking about proteins. So, translation has created some proteins, and we're not going to spend a ton of time talking about proteins in this course because it's a genetics course, and we don't really care as much about them. It's other biology courses, but I do want to briefly go over some of them. So, proteins, they're made up of amino acids, and they're organized into these chains called polypeptide chains. Now there are 4 structural levels of proteins that you need to be aware of. It's called primary, secondary, tertiary, and that makes sense. So 1, 2, 3, 4. Now primary structure refers to just the amino acid sequence. Secondary structure is local structures found within the polypeptide chain, so things close to each other, and these can be divided into 2 structures, which I will show you a picture of to differentiate them, but these are alpha helices and beta sheets, and they actually physically look different. Then you have tertiary structure, and that is going to be the 3D structure of the entire polypeptide chain, and you have quaternary structure, which is the 3D structure of multiple polypeptide chains that make up a single protein. So proteins can be composed of lots of polypeptide chains and quaternary structure deals with that structure. Now every single protein has an amino end and a carboxyl end, so I like to think of this as kind of the start and this is the end, but it just is based on the amino group and the carboxyl group. So here we have primary structure, you can just see these are different amino acids, and that is the sequence of them. Secondary structure is here, and you have alpha helices, which you can see actually looks like a helix, and you have beta sheets. This is antiparallel, those 2 types. Not super important you know about them in this class, but we're going to mention them here, it's not spelled at all correctly. This is antiparallel because the directions of the beta sheets are going opposite, but it could be parallel if they were going the same in either direction. But this is a beta sheet that's antiparallel, and so this is a local or a regional substructure that happens in the polypeptide chain. The tertiary structure deals with the entire polypeptide chain. So you can see there's a lot of beta helices here or beta sheets. There's a couple of alpha helices here. This is the entire polypeptide chain and what its structure looks like, and then you have quaternary structure. So this is various polypeptide chains, so here we have they're all in different colors, so we have the red one, the orange one, the green one, and the blue one. So there are 4 polypeptide chains here, and each of them come together, and their entire structure together makes up the quaternary structure. Now if we talk about the individual amino acids themselves, we like to focus on the R group, and the R group provides is the region of the amino acid that provides the proteins with certain properties. So our R groups can be nonpolar, polar, charged, positive or negative, and these R groups allow for the protein to fold into a bunch of different shapes, and protein shapes are divided into 2 main classes, even though there's a ton of different protein shapes, but we sort of divide them all into 2 classes. You have globular proteins, these are more compact proteins. So if this was a protein, it would look like this or something similar. And you have fibrous proteins, which are linear proteins, so they just look like a line. It might be a squiggle line, but essentially it's just a line, 3D line, because these are three-dimensional things. R groups also allow proteins that have specific domains, which are structural regions that have sometimes could be domains, and these active sites sometimes could be domains, these structural regions with specific functions. And protein folding is really controlled. Proteins mainly can fold on their own, but sometimes they need help, and the proteins that help them are called chaperones, and they help fold proteins correctly. So here is an example of a chemical structure of what an amino acid looks like. You have your carbon, you have your amino group, you have your carboxyl group over here, you have a hydrogen, but the important group here is the R group, and this gives different amino acids or in properties, and when multiple amino acids are attached on here, each with different R groups, that gives an entire polypeptide chain certain properties that help it fold and give it function and give it structure and all sorts of things. So that's a very brief overview of proteins, but this is a genetics class, so that's probably all you're going to get. So, with that, let's now move on.