So how does the liver get amino acids to perform the urea cycle? Well, most amino acids are going to actually come in as glutamine. Basically, all the tissues in your body are capable of delivering glutamine to the liver to get rid of that nitrogen. So glutamine synthetase is the enzyme that makes glutamine to send to the liver. And basically, it will take glutamate and ATP and a nitrogen group and it will make glutamine and of course, you will be left with ADP and inorganic phosphate. And basically, the reason for this is that it is very easy for the cell to convert amino acids into glutamine this way. So that's how it's going to transport the majority of amino acids to the liver and it also can get rid of this extra nitrogen group by doing so. So glutamine enters the mitochondria and will actually get broken down into glutamate. So kind of undoing what happened up here and it'll cleave off that ammonium and this is carried out by an enzyme called glutaminase. Now, that glutamate will then be acted upon by glutamate dehydrogenase and it will be converted to alpha-ketoglutarate. Basically, glutamate dehydrogenase just cuts off that amino group and it comes off as ammonium and in the process, it's actually going to reduce NAD+ or NADP+ (that's why the 'p' is in parenthesis there; it's actually either or) and it's going to reduce that to NADH or NADPH. Now, these nitrogens that got cut off, those are going to be used to feed the urea cycle. Remember that the first step requires ammonium to form carbamoyl phosphate. It should be noted that some glutamate is actually used to add the ammonium instead of just cutting it and releasing it to the urea cycle. That ammonium is actually added to oxaloacetate and that forms aspartate. Now you might remember that during the urea cycle in step 3, we actually use aspartate. Guess what? That aspartate is this aspartate. So some glutamate is actually used to form the aspartate that is used during the urea cycle. And of course, the cell has to kind of regulate the amount of glutamate that it cleaves to provide ammonium and the amount it uses to form aspartate. And it's worth noting that this is going to happen in the mitochondria which should make sense because we have oxaloacetate. So then this aspartate has to actually be exported from the mitochondria into the cytosol for step 3 of the urea cycle. Now I said that most tissues or rather all tissues export glutamine but muscles, muscles actually can send alanine as well. This is called the glucose-alanine cycle. And this again only occurs in the muscles and basically muscles will send alanine to the liver. And the way they do that is by converting pyruvate into alanine and to provide the amino group for this, they're going to cleave glutamate, take the amino from glutamate. So glutamate is going to turn into alpha-ketoglutarate. Now that alanine gets transported through the blood to the liver and once in the liver, what happened in the muscle, what we just talked about up here, gets undone. That's a pattern in general that I hope you've started to notice and are going to notice, later that a lot of processes are done and then undone after some transport. Anyhow, so alanine gets converted back into pyruvate by sending that amino group over to alpha-ketoglutarate which reforms glutamate and then that glutamate ammonium to the urea cycle or by being used to make aspartate. Now, what's going to happen to that pyruvate? Well, remember, this is the liver, the site of gluconeogenesis, right? So we are going to use pyruvate or we can use pyruvate I should say for gluconeogenesis which is going to make glucose, right, and then guess where a lot of that glucose is going? Right back to the muscles. Right? Now this is why this is called a cycle because that glucose goes back to the muscles, it gets broken down into pyruvate and then we can use that pyruvate to make alanine and repeat this cycle. So, before moving on, I just want to get my fat head out of this picture and just zoom in on the liver for a second and show you what's going on here. So, we have alanine and glutamine being used to make glutamate to feed urea cycle. Of course, if you're using glutamine to make glutamate, you're going to cut off, a nitrogen from it which will be released as ammonium. And if you use glutamate, you can use it to either provide ammonium or aspartate, right, to the urea cycle. Alright. So you may have noticed that fumarate also came off of the urea cycle. Well, the urea cycle is connected to the citric acid cycle, right. It's happening in part in the mitochondria. So it's very easy for that fumarate to actually enter the citric acid cycle where it will be turned into malate and then oxaloacetate. And of course, that oxaloacetate as we previously discussed can be used to make aspartate, right? That is the aspartate that we saw right here. The aspartate that is used as part of the urea cycle. So in a sense, argininosuccinate is kind of the link citric acid cycle. Alright, the citric acid cycle. Alright. Last thing I want to talk about are transaminases. These are used throughout this process, right? Whenever we're moving an amino group from one molecule to another, we use transaminase. And what's interesting about these is they can actually be an indicator of tissue damage, a really easy indicator of internal tissue damage because if you have internal tissue damage, enzymes will be spilling out and you can assay for these transaminases to see where the tissue damage is depending on which transaminases you have. These transaminases right here GPT and GOT indicate liver damage and this S just means serum as in in the blood. And this, transaminase right here can be an indication of heart damage. So either, you know, imminent heart attack or heart attack or infection. Last thing I want to talk about before moving on is regulation of the urea cycle. So remember, step 1 is carried out by carbamoyl phosphate synthetase. This molecule N Acetylglutamate actually stimulates, that enzyme. So it can kick the urea cycle into gear. And the way that's going to happen is with this, basically it's like a regulatory enzyme sort of similar or kind of akin to what we saw with phosphofructokinase 2. So N Acetylglutamate synthase will take Acetyl CoA and glutamate and make N Acetylglutamate. This enzyme that produces the molecule that stimulates the urea cycle is stimulated by arginine. I hope that this makes a lot of sense to you. Why do you think arginine would stimulate the urea cycle in essence? It's a few steps removed but basically arginine can stimulate the urea cycle is what we're seeing. Arginine has a lot of nitrogen, doesn't it? Well, hopefully, you're putting 2 and 2 together and if you have a lot of nitrogen, you're going to want to kick that urea cycle into gear. Alright. Let's flip the page.
Table of contents
- 1. Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology5h 40m
- What is Anatomy & Physiology?20m
- Levels of Organization13m
- Variation in Anatomy & Physiology12m
- Introduction to Organ Systems27m
- Homeostasis9m
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- Feedback Loops: Negative Feedback19m
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- 4. Tissues & Histology10h 3m
- Introduction to Tissues & Histology16m
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- Simple Epithelial Tissues1h 2m
- Stratified Epithelial Tissues55m
- Identifying Types of Epithelial Tissue32m
- Glandular Epithelial Tissue26m
- Introduction to Connective Tissue36m
- Classes of Connective Tissue8m
- Introduction to Connective Tissue Proper40m
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- Specialized Connective Tissue: Cartilage44m
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- Introduction to Muscle Tissue7m
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- Nervous Tissue: The Neuron8m
- 5. Integumentary System2h 20m
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- An Introduction to Bone and Skeletal Tissue18m
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- Gross Anatomy of Bones - Structure of a Long Bone23m
- Microscopic Anatomy of Bones - Bone Matrix9m
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- Microscopic Anatomy of Bones - Trabeculae9m
- 7. The Skeletal System2h 35m
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- 9. Muscle Tissue2h 33m
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- 12. The Central Nervous System1h 6m
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- Introduction to the Peripheral Nervous System5m
- Organization of Sensory Pathways16m
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- 14. The Autonomic Nervous System1h 38m
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- 16. The Endocrine System2h 48m
- 17. The Blood1h 22m
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- 21. The Immune System14h 37m
- Introduction to the Immune System10m
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- Introduction to Inflammation18m
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- Fever8m
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- Review Map of Innate Immunity
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- Antigens12m
- Introduction to T Lymphocytes38m
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- Review of Cytotoxic vs Helper T Cells13m
- Introduction to B Lymphocytes27m
- Antibodies14m
- Classes of Antibodies35m
- Outcomes of Antibody Binding to Antigen15m
- T Dependent & T Independent Antigens21m
- Clonal Selection20m
- Antibody Class Switching17m
- Affinity Maturation14m
- Primary and Secondary Response of Adaptive Immunity21m
- Immune Tolerance28m
- Regulatory T Cells10m
- Natural Killer Cells16m
- Review of Adaptive Immunity25m
- 22. The Respiratory System3h 20m
- 23. The Digestive System2h 5m
- 24. Metabolism and Nutrition4h 0m
- Essential Amino Acids5m
- Lipid Vitamins19m
- Cellular Respiration: Redox Reactions15m
- Introduction to Cellular Respiration22m
- Cellular Respiration: Types of Phosphorylation14m
- Cellular Respiration: Glycolysis19m
- Cellular Respiration: Pyruvate Oxidation8m
- Cellular Respiration: Krebs Cycle16m
- Cellular Respiration: Electron Transport Chain14m
- Cellular Respiration: Chemiosmosis7m
- Review of Aerobic Cellular Respiration18m
- Fermentation & Anaerobic Respiration23m
- Gluconeogenesis16m
- Fatty Acid Oxidation20m
- Amino Acid Oxidation17m
- 25. The Urinary System2h 39m
- 26. Fluid and Electrolyte Balance, Acid Base Balance Coming soon
- 27. The Reproductive System2h 5m
- 28. Human Development1h 21m
- 29. Heredity Coming soon
24. Metabolism and Nutrition
Amino Acid Oxidation
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